B12 is an essential nutrient, and its deficiency is common, especially among individuals following restricted diets like vegetarianism or veganism, pregnant or breastfeeding women, older adults, those who have undergone gastrointestinal surgery or have gastrointestinal disorders, and people with an autoimmune condition known as pernicious anaemia
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Likewise, endothelial cells are regulating mucosal immune homeostasis, acting as "gatekeepers", controlling leukocyte accumulation in the interstitial compartment
[2] [4] Animals require B 12 but plants do not, relying instead on alternative enzymatic pathways