This often occurs in smokers, people with metabolic disease, heavy alcohol drinkers, as a side effect of certain prescription drugs, rheumatoid arthritis and impaired thyroid function
The diagnostic process typically involves: Clinical history taking, focusing on symptoms (fatigue, neurological changes, dietary habits) Physical examination for signs of anaemia or neurological impairment Blood tests including full blood count, serum B12, and often folate levels Additional investigations such as intrinsic factor antibodies or parietal cell antibodies if pernicious anaemia is suspected For borderline results, additional tests like holotranscobalamin (active B12) may be considered NICE guidance recommends that treatment should commence based on clinical presentation if neurological symptoms are present, without waiting for laboratory confirmation, as delays can result in irreversible nerve damage
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Emerging use of BPC-157 in orthopaedic sports medicine: systematic review (2025) Journal of Orthopaedic Research Chang CH et al
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Stacking these peptides is a common research approach for synergistic tissue repair support